Religion / branch / eraPhase 4b · Caliphates, schools & sectsMajor figure

Tasawwuf (Sufism)

التصوف

Ascetic roots in 1st-2nd century AH; formal Sufism 3rd century AH onward date disputed

The tradition of spiritual purification (tazkiyah) and ihsan, growing from early asceticism into a structured discipline and later organised orders. Scholars praise its ethical core while criticising practices they see as innovations.

Biography

Early ascetics (zuhhad) such as al-Hasan al-Basri, Ibrahim ibn Adham and Rabi'ah al-Adawiyyah emphasised fear and love of Allah. Al-Junayd of Baghdad (d. 298 AH) articulated 'sober' Sufism within the Shari'ah; al-Qushayri and al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH) integrated it with Sunni scholarship. The 'ihsan' of the Hadith of Jibril (Sahih Muslim) is commonly cited as its basis.

Debates concern practices such as shrine veneration, intercession, music (sama') and certain metaphysical doctrines (e.g. wahdat al-wujud associated with Ibn Arabi). Critics include Ibn Taymiyyah and modern Salafis; defenders include many traditional Sunni scholars.

Sources & explanation

۞ Qur'an

No specific verses cited for this node.

📜 Hadith verified on sunnah.com

Sahih Muslim 8a Sahih

Hadith of Jibril: the definitions of Islam, Iman and Ihsan ('to worship Allah as though you see Him'); it opens with Ibn 'Umar's response to the first deniers of Qadar in Basra.
Sahih al-Bukhari 50 Sahih

Hadith of Jibril in Bukhari: Ihsan is 'to worship Allah as if you see Him; and if you do not see Him, He sees you'.

💬 Explanation Unverified

Engineer Muhammad Ali Mirza's perspective

Methodological note (not a direct quote): Engineer Muhammad Ali Mirza's widely known approach is to build narratives primarily on the Quran and Sahih Hadith, to set aside Israiliyat (Judeo-Christian lore absorbed into later tafsir) and weak or fabricated narrations, and to avoid sectarian framing. Applied to this node: The ethical emphasis on ihsan (Sahih Muslim) is affirmed; practices without basis in the Quran and Sahih Hadith would be critiqued. Specific positions are unverified.

Empires in their lifetime

Sultanate of Rum 1077 – 1308 CE
Konya was home to Jalal al-Din Rumi, whose followers formed the Mevlevi order.

Further references

Sahih Muslim (Hadith of Jibril on ihsan)
al-Qushayri, al-Risalah
Historical consensus

Connections

Comes from

Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah (Sunni Islam) offshoot — Spiritual tradition

Leads to

Major Sufi Orders (Qadiriyya, Chishtiyya, Suhrawardiyya, Naqshbandiyya) offshoot — Organised orders

Linked with

al-Hasan al-Basri (RH) related — Early ascetic model